Learning Disabilities and Disorders

Learning Disabilities and Disorders

While every Child has trouble with homework from time to time, if a certain area of learning is consistently problematic, it might indicate a learning disorder. By understanding all you can about learning disabilities, you can ensure your child gets the right help to overcome classroom challenges and succeed in life.

What are learning disabilities?

Learning disabilities, or learning disorders, are an umbrella term for a wide variety of learning problems. A learning disability is not a problem with intelligence or motivation. Children with learning disabilities are not lazy or dumb. In fact, most are, just as smart as anyone. Their brains are simply, wired differently. This difference affects how they receive and process information.

Children and adults with learning disabilities see, hear, and understand things differently. This can lead to trouble with learning new information and skills, and putting them to use. The most common types of learning disabilities involve problems with reading, writing, math, reasoning, listening, and speaking.

Children with learning disabilities can, and do, succeed

No parents want to see their children suffer. You may wonder what it could mean for your child’s future, or worry about how your kid will make it through school. Perhaps, you are concerned that by paying attention to your child's learning problems he or she might be labelled "slow" or assigned to a less challenging class. The important thing to remember is that most kids with learning disabilities are, just as smart as everyone else. They just need, to be taught in ways that are tailored to their unique learning styles. By learning more about learning disabilities in general, and your child’s learning difficulties in particular, you can help pave the way for success at school and beyond.

Signs and Symptoms of Learning Disabilities and Disorders

If you suspect that your child's learning difficulties may require special assistance, please do not delay in finding support. The sooner you move forward, the better your child's chances for reaching his or her full potential. Learning disabilities look very different from one child to another. One child may struggle with reading and spelling, while another loves books but cannot understand math. Still another child may have difficulty understanding what others are saying or communicating out-loud.

The problems are very different, but they are all learning disorders. It is not always easy to identify learning disabilities. Because of the wide variations, there is no single symptom or profile that, you can look to as proof of a problem. However, some warning signs are more common than in others at different ages. If you are aware of what they are, you will be able to catch a learning disorder early and quickly take steps to get your child help.

The following checklist lists some common red flags for learning disorders. Remember that children who do not have learning disabilities may still experience, some of these difficulties at various times. The time for concern is when there is a consistent unevenness in your child’s ability to master certain skills.

Signs and symptoms of learning disabilities: Preschool age

•          Problems pronouncing words
•          Trouble finding the right word
•          Difficulty rhyming
•          Trouble learning the alphabet, numbers, colours, shapes, days of the week
•          Difficulty following directions or learning routines
•          Difficulty controlling crayons, pencils, and scissors, or colouring within the lines
•          Trouble with buttons, zippers, snaps, learning to tie shoes

 Signs and symptoms of learning disabilities: Ages 5-9

•          Trouble learning the connection between letters and sounds
•          Unable to blend sounds to make words
•          Confuses basic words when reading
•          Slow to learn new skills
•          Consistently misspells words and makes frequent errors
•          Trouble learning basic math concepts
•          Difficulty telling time and remembering sequences

 Signs and symptoms of learning disabilities: Ages 10-13

•          Difficulty with reading comprehension or math skills
•          Trouble with open-ended test questions and word problems
•          Dislikes reading and writing; avoids reading aloud
•          Poor handwriting
•          Poor organizational skills (bedroom, homework, desk is messy and disorganized)
•          Trouble following classroom discussions and expressing thoughts aloud
•          Spells the same word differently in a single document

Developmental milestones can help you identify learning disorders

Paying attention to normal developmental milestones for toddlers and pre-schoolers is very important. Early detection of developmental differences may be an early signal of a learning disability and problems that are, spotted early can be easier to correct. A developmental lag, might not be considered a symptom of a learning disability until your child is older, but if you recognize it when your child is young, you can intervene early. You know your child better than anyone else does, so if you think there is a problem, it does not hurt to get an evaluation. You can also ask your paediatrician for a developmental milestones chart.

Problems with Reading, Writing, and Math

Learning disabilities are, often grouped by school-area skill set. If your child is in school, the types of learning disorders that are most conspicuous usually revolve around reading, writing, or math.

Learning disabilities in reading (dyslexia)     

There are two types of learning disabilities in reading. Basic reading problems occur when there is difficulty understanding the relationship between sounds, letters and words. Reading comprehension problems occur when there is an inability to grasp the meaning of words, phrases, and paragraphs. Signs of reading difficulty include problems with:

·         Letter and word recognition

·         Understanding words and ideas

·         Reading speed and fluency

·         General vocabulary skills

Learning disabilities in math (dyscalculia)

Learning disabilities in math vary greatly depending on the child’s other strengths and weaknesses. A child’s ability to do math will be, affected differently by a language learning disability, or a visual disorder or a difficulty with sequencing, memory or organization. A child with a math-based learning disorder may struggle with memorization and organization of numbers, operation signs, and number “facts” (like 5+5=10 or 5x5=25). Children with math learning disorders might also have trouble with counting principles (such as counting by twos or counting by fives) or have difficulty telling time.

Learning disabilities in writing (dysgraphia)

Learning disabilities in writing can involve the physical act of writing or the mental activity of comprehending and synthesizing information. Basic writing disorder refers to physical difficulty forming words and letters. Expressive writing disability indicates a struggle to organize thoughts on paper. Symptoms of a written language learning disability revolve around the act of writing. They include problems with:

•          Neatness and consistency of writing
•          Accurately copying letters and words
•          Spelling consistency
•          Writing organization and coherence

Learning disabilities in motor skills (dyspraxia)

Motor difficulty refers to problems with movement and coordination whether it is with fine motor skills (cutting, writing) or gross motor skills (running, jumping). A motor disability is, sometimes referred to, as an “output” activity meaning that it relates to the output of information from the brain. In order to run, jump, write or cut something, the brain must be able to communicate with the necessary limbs to complete the action. Signs that your child might have a motor coordination disability include problems with physical abilities that require hand-eye coordination, like holding a pencil or buttoning a shirt.

Learning disabilities in language (aphasia/dysphasia)

Language and communication learning disabilities involve the ability to understand or produce spoken language. Language is also, considered as an output activity because it requires organizing thoughts in the brain and calling upon the right words to verbally explain something or communicate with someone else. Signs of a language-based learning disorder involve problems with verbal language skills, such as the ability to retell a story and the fluency of speech, as well as the ability to understand the meaning of words, parts of speech, directions, etc.

 Auditory and Visual Processing Problems

The eyes and the ears are the primary means of delivering information to the brain, a process sometimes called “input.” If either the eyes or the ears are not working properly, learning can suffer.

Auditory processing disorder – Professionals may refer to the ability to hear well as “auditory processing skills” or “receptive language.” The ability to hear things correctly greatly effects the ability to read, write and spell. An inability to distinguish subtle differences in sound, or hearing sounds at the wrong speed make it difficult to sound out words and understand the basic concepts of reading and writing.

Visual processing disorder – Problems in visual perception include missing subtle differences in shapes, reversing letters or numbers, skipping words, skipping lines, misperceiving depth or distance, or having problems with eye–hand coordination. Professionals may refer to the work of the eyes as “visual processing.” Visual perception can affect gross and fine motor skills, reading comprehension, and math.

Hope for learning disabilities: The Brain can change

Using a telephone analogy, faulty wiring in the brain disrupts normal lines of communication and makes it difficult to process information easily. If service was down in a certain area of the city, the phone company might fix the problem by rewiring the connections.

Similarly, under the right learning conditions, the brain has the ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections. These new connections facilitate skills like reading and writing that were difficult using the old connections.

Science has made great strides in understanding the inner workings of the brain, and one important discovery that brings new hope for learning disabilities and disorders called neuroplasticity. Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s natural, lifelong ability to change.

Throughout life, the brain is able to form new connections and generate new brain cells in response to experience and learning.

This knowledge has led to ground breaking new treatments for learning disabilities that take advantage of the brain’s ability to change. Innovative programs, such as the Arrowsmith program, use strategic brain exercises to identify and strengthen weak cognitive areas. For example, for children who have difficulty distinguishing between different sounds in a word, there are new computer-based learning programs that slow down the sounds so that children can understand them and gradually increase their speed of comprehension.

These discoveries about neuroplasticity provide hope to all students with learning disorders, and further research may lead to additional new treatments that target the actual causes of learning disabilities, rather than simply offering coping strategies to compensate for weaknesses.

Diagnosis and Testing for Learning Disabilities and Disorders

Diagnosing a learning disability is not always easy. Do not assume you know what your child’s problem is, even if the symptoms seem clear. It is important to have your child tested and evaluated by a qualified professional. You should trust your instincts. If you think something is wrong, listen to your gut. If you feel that a teacher or doctor is minimizing your concerns, seek a second opinion. Do not let anyone tell you to “wait and see” or “don’t worry about it” if you see your child struggling. Regardless of whether or not your child’s problems are due to a learning disability, intervention is, needed. You cannot go wrong by looking into the issue and taking action.

Keep in mind that finding someone who can help may take some time and effort. Even experts mix up learning disabilities with ADHD and other behavioural problems sometimes. You may have to look around a bit or try more than one professional. In the meantime, try to be patient, and remember that you would not always get clear answers. Do not try getting caught up in trying to determine the label for your child’s disorder. Leave that to the professionals. Focus instead on steps you can take to support your child and address his or her symptoms in practical ways.

The diagnosis and testing process for learning disabilities

Diagnosing a learning disability is a process. It involves testing, history taking, and observation by a trained specialist. Finding a reputable referral is important. Start with your child's school, and if they are unable to help you, ask your insurance company, doctor, or friends and family who have dealt successfully with learning disabilities.

Types of specialists who may be able to test for and diagnose learning disabilities include:

1.          Clinical psychologists
2.   .      School psychologists
3.          Child psychiatrists
4.            Educational psychologists
5.   .      Developmental psychologists
6.          Neuropsychologist
7.          Psychometrist
8.          Occupational therapist (tests sensory disorders that can lead to learning problems)
9.          Speech and language therapist

Sometimes several professionals coordinate services as a team to obtain an accurate diagnosis. They may ask for input from your child's teachers. Recommendations can be, made for special education services or speech-language therapy within the school system. A non-public school that specializes in treating learning disabilities might be a good alternative if the public school is not working out. For a list of non-public schools in your area, go to the website for your state's Department of Education.

Integration, sequencing and abstraction: Terms for how the brain works

A professional learning disorders specialist might refer to the importance of “integration” to learning. Integration refers to the understanding of information that has been, delivered to the brain, and it includes three steps: sequencing, which means putting information in the right order; abstraction, which is making sense of the information; and organization, which refers to the brains ability to use the information to form complete thoughts.

Each of the three steps is important and your child may have a weakness in one area or another that causes learning difficulty. For example, in math, sequencing (the ability to put things in order) is important for learning to count or do multiplication (as well as learn the alphabet or the months of the year). Similarly, abstraction and organization are important parts of numerous educational skills and abilities. If a certain brain activity is not happening correctly, it will create a roadblock to learning.

 Getting help for Children with Learning Disabilities

When it comes to learning disabilities, it is not always easy to know what to do and where to find help. Turning to specialists who can pinpoint and diagnose the problem is, of course, important. You will also want to work with your child's school to make accommodations for your child and get specialized academic help. Do not overlook your own role. You know your child better than anyone else, so take the lead in looking into your options, learning about new treatments and services, and overseeing your child's education.

Learn the specifics about your child’s learning disability. Read and learn about your child’s type of learning disability. Find out how the disability affects the learning process and what cognitive skills are involved. It is easier to evaluate learning techniques if you understand how the learning disability affects your child.

Research treatments, services, and new theories. Along with knowing about the type of learning disability your child has, educate yourself about the most effective treatment options available. This can help you advocate for your child at school and pursue treatment at home.

Pursue treatment and services at home. Even if the school does not have the resources to treat your child’s learning disability optimally, you can pursue these options on your own at home or with a therapist or tutor.

Nurture your child’s strengths. Even though children with learning disabilities struggle in one area of learning, they may excel in another. Pay attention to your child’s interests and passions. Helping children with learning disorders develop their passions and strengths will probably help them with the areas of difficulty as well.

Social and emotional skills: How you can help

Learning disabilities can be extremely frustrating for children. Imagine having trouble with a skill all of your friends are tackling with ease, worrying about embarrassing yourself in front of the class, or struggling to express yourself. Things can be doubly frustrating for exceptionally bright children with learning disabilities – a scenario that is, very common.

Kids with learning disabilities may have trouble expressing their feelings, calming themselves down, and reading nonverbal cues from others. This can lead to difficulty in the classroom and with their peers. The good news is that, as a parent, you can have a huge impact in these areas. Social and emotional skills are the most consistent indicators of success for all children—and that includes kids with learning disorders. They outweigh everything else, including academic skills, in predicting lifelong achievement and happiness.

Learning disabilities, and their accompanying academic challenges, can lead to low self-esteem, isolation, and behaviour problems, but they do not have to. You can counter these things by creating a strong support system for children with learning disabilities and helping them learn to express themselves, deal with frustration, and work through challenges. By focusing on your child’s growth as a person, and not just on academic achievements, you will help him or her learn good emotional habits that set the stage for success throughout life.

Finding support while helping a child with learning disabilities

All children can be both exhilarating and exhausting, but it may seem that your child with a learning disability is especially so. You may experience some frustration trying to work with your child, and it can seem like an uphill battle when you do not have the information you need After you learn what their specific learning disability is and how it is affecting their behaviour, you will be able to start addressing the challenges in school and at home. If you can, be sure to reach out to other parents who are addressing similar challenges, as they can be great sources of knowledge and emotional support.

Deviant Behaviour among in-school Adolescents

Deviant Behaviour among in-school Adolescents

Education remains one of the tools for the transformation of an individual and society at large. It is one of the most powerful instruments for social change, which plays a crucial role in nation-building. According to Idowu and Esere (2007), education helps to develop people’s intellectual and functional capabilities. The school is a place where students acquire needed competencies for various vocations. The place of the counselor in schools cannot be overemphasized. Counselling is a personal relationship between the counselor and the client with the aim of assisting the client to understand themselves, effectively take decision and also solve their problems. Duroasro (2016) noted that counselling is oriented towards facilitating effective learning skills, acceptable habits and appropriate behaviour. The National Policy on Education (2013) edition clearly stated that “in view of the apparent ignorance of many young people about career prospects and personality maladjustment among students, counselors will be appointed in post primary institutions’’. Hence, it became compulsory for secondary school administrators to employ professional counselors. An effective counselor is a good listener, empathetic, warm and sensitive to the needs of others. Counselors are also trained in modifying maladaptive behaviour.

Adolescence is often described as a period of transition from childhood to adulthood. In some societies the beginning of this stage is marked with celebrations. Adegoke (2003) noted that adolescence begins with the onset of puberty. At this stage, there is rapid growth in the organs of the body. Akinpelu (1998) described adolescence as a built-in necessary transition period for ego development.

The World Health Organization (1976) defined adolescence as a period during which an individual progresses from the point of initial appearance of the secondary sexual characteristics to that of sexual maturity. This period is accompanied by various changes that are significant in physical, intellectual, social and emotional areas. Ibrahim (2009) described an adolescent as someone who is unstable, angry, moody, self conscious and inexperienced in handling emotional problems. Adolescence, from a psychological point of view, is a period dominated by stress and tensions due to inner emotional instability and as a result of conflicting external influence (Oni 2010).

The problems of adolescents are many and the pressure to conform to peer influence becomes very strong during adolescent years. Also, at this stage the adolescents engage in activities that are perceived to be contrary to the norms and values of the societies. Deviance is generally defined as any behaviour that does not conform to the established rules of a group of individuals or the society at large (Idris 2016). At this stage, an adolescent finds it difficult to conform to the norms of the society. Deviant behaviours are actions which conflict with the societal norms (Hirschi 1995). It could also be referred to as the engagement of people in criminal offences, illegal, antisocial and unethical behaviour. In a nutshell, any behaviour that violates the norm or social standard of the society is deviant. Deviant behaviour could also be any form of behaviour that contravenes the rules and regulations or even laws that govern an establishment.

Some researchers have identified the different types of deviant behaviour among in-school adolescents; these include truancy, examination malpractice, substance abuse, bullying, vandalism, and sexual immorality (Odunmuyiwa 2001; Esere 2008). Goode (2007) further stated that behaviour that is deviant in one society may not be in another. Even within a society, what is deviant today may not be deviant tomorrow. Suleiman (2011) noted that a particular behaviour is antisocial if any of these three criteria are seen; when behaviour does not allow a person to function effectively with others as a member of the society, when such behaviour does not permit the person to meet his or her own needs and when behaviour has a negative effect on the wellbeing of others. Boyd (2015) reported that a lot of youths are involved in the use of tobacco, amphetamines, bartiturates and heroin. In the same vein, Gordon (2001) revealed that smoking and drug use are basically societal problems among in-school adolescents. Gordon also recorded that 90% of adolescents who are involved in smoking started at an adolescent age. Idris (2016) explained that there are many cases of cultism, sexual abuse, acts of vandalism, blackmail, threats and intimidations reported by classroom teachers as well as school principals. Idris affirmed that there is an increase in the rate of moral decadence among youths as a result of the lack of discipline. Such in-disciplined acts among students have culminated in juvenile delinquency.

Many researchers have identified some causes of deviant behaviour among in-school adolescents. The environment in which adolescents live can influence them, especially when there is lack of parental guidance. The school is a major and important environment where a child develops during the formative years. When parents do not consistently react to the undesired behaviour of an adolescent, the child might continue to engage in more deviant behaviours in the school (Suleimen 2011). Poor academic performance also predisposes youth to deviant behaviours. Olawale (2001) emphasized that behavioural problems are common among children of lower intelligence. Babatunde (2016) noted that some children resort to antisocial behaviour due to their inability to cope with the academic rigours of the school.

The home is an agent of socialization. This is the place where values and morals are transmitted. The poor moral conduct of parents can result in broken homes which negatively influence the students’ behaviour. According to Goode (2007) many parents have lost their leadership roles in the home and poor home training causes students to engage in deviant behaviours. On the other hand, Gbadamosi (2003) observed that the causes of deviant behaviour are linked to faulty curriculum plans, administrative deficiency, inadequate school facilities, harsh school rules and societal problems. Individual differences in personality and psychological problems encountered by students are believed to be some of the reasons some in-school adolescents engage in deviant behaviours. Many of these students cope with their problems by getting involved in behaviours like vandalism, stealing, involvement in illicit sex activities, drug abuse.

All these risky behaviours negatively affect public order and the sense of safety of youths (Ibrahim 2012). Sociological theory explains that peer group influence, lack of parental supervision and support for client’s needs are links to delinquency in any race. Biological theorists believe that deviant behaviour is hereditary. They believe that if an area of the brain has the properties that predispose people to deviant behaviour, such students are likely to develop more severe deviant attitudes. The psychological theory suggests that people are predisposed to deviant behaviour when they are fixated at any stage of development (Omotosho 2009).

The psychological explanation of deviant behaviour was developed by Sigmund Freud. The theory explained that the initial five years of an individual’s life is very important; they determine adult behaviour. Freud explained that the sexual impulses (libido) which can be referred to as instinctive drives are powerful determinants of one’s behaviour. This is largely controlled by the unconscious. The theory believes that there are three3 different structure of personality. The conscious deals with what human beings are aware of. Preconscious thoughts are not part of the conscious but can be brought to reality, while the unconscious according Freud categorically determines our behaviour. Freud believed that most of our thoughts, sensation, craving and memories exist in the unconscious. The unconscious contains the major driving force behind our  behaviour.

Human personality consists of the id, ego and the super ego. Id is the biological component of personality and the primary source of psychic energy and the seat of all instincts. It is ruled by the pleasure principle. The ego mediates between the id and the super ego. It is conscious and logical. It develops as we interact with our environment while the super ego is the moral branch of personality. It strives not for pleasure but for perfection.

The psycho-social stages of personality according to Sigmund Freud include the oral stage (0-1 year), when the child derives pleasure from sucking. He believes that when a child sucks it is not only to take in food but also for the pleasure of the sensation. This can lead to over-dependency in personality. The anal stage is from1-3 years; at this stage, the pleasure shifts to the anal zone. When the child is given strict toilet training, the child might grow up to be stingy because he/she is fixated at the anal stage. The phallic stage (3-5 years) is when the child develops pleasure at the genital stage. The oedipus and electra complexes develop. At the latency stage (5-12 years), the child diverts his/her attention to developing skills. The genital stage (12-14 years), is when the child begins to develop an interest in the opposite sex.

The individual transforms from a self-loving individual into a socialized adult (Alao2000). According to Sigmund Freud, all human beings have natural drives and urges that are repressed in the unconscious. He also believed that all human beings have criminal tendencies and their behaviours are curbed through the process of socialization. A child that is not well socialized can develop antisocial behaviour impulses and when such a child gets fixated at any of the psychosocial stages, such an individual can engage in anti-social deviant behaviour. Freud emphasized the importance of early years of childhood fixation in determining the adult personality.

Deviant behaviour in the class room increases the stress level of teachers and at the same time changes the classroom dynamics. The use of the psychological principles are the various ways in which deviant behaviours are managed in schools. This approach is based on some systematic application psychological principles. Behavioural modification can simply be defined as the systematic application of principles derived from learning theories and experience in psychology (Asonibare 2016). The techniques are used in extinguishing unwanted behaviour and at the same time helping to increase existing positive behaviours. It can also be used to teach new behaviour patterns. In extinguishing unwanted deviant behaviour among in-school adolescents, there are many strategies that can be employed. The behavioural approach is based on the assumption that negative behaviour can be unlearned and replaced with positive ones (Esere 2002).

In schools, counselors use different behavioural modification techniques in managing deviant behaviour.  The use of reinforcement can help curb undesired behaviour among school children. Winkielman (2005) defines reinforcement as a stimulus that strengthens behaviour and increases the frequency of its occurrence. It involves reinforcing one’s positive response which in turn blocks the appearance of undesirable behaviours. There are different types of reinforcement; these are intrinsic reinforcement (that is when a behaviour strengthens itself e.g. eating and playing music), extrinsic reinforcement (this is when the behaviour is strengthened by external consequences), primary reinforcement (things that are important to life such as food, water) and secondary reinforcement (things like money and praise). Counselors help in improving students’ behaviour by also using some certain verbal reinforcement principles. The counselor can praise those who obey rules and regulations, thereby ignoring those that are found guilty. Psychologists affirmed that the use of reinforcement helps to provide an explicit model of what is expected among in-school adolescents (Asonibare 2016). Okobiah and Okorodudu (2006) noted that disruptive behaviour can persist if only verbal reinforcement is used by the counsellor on the management of deviant behaviour. 

Garber (2006) opined that reinforcement strategy in classroom instruction promotes academic achievement. Other strategies for behaviour modification include:

1. Premack Principles: This can also be called “grandma’s rule”. This is when the counselor uses preferred behaviour to reinforce less preferred activity.
2. Token Economy: This is when positive behaviour is reinforced with an exchange for goals. 
3. Contracting: Behaviour contract is a negotiated agreement between two parties.

In signing this contract, the counselor states clearly the purpose of the contract (Alao 2000). The reward is carried out immediately the counselor observes the positive change. Punishment can also be used in reducing deviant behaviour. Punishment refers to the use of aversive stimuli to decrease undesirable behaviour. This is often used when all other techniques have failed. There are two major types of punishment: positive punishment (when the counselor applies aversive consequences like kneeling down and flogging) and negative punishment (this involves the withdrawal of certain privileges (Asonibare 2004). Adesina (1984) explains that punishment must be retributive; it should serve as a deterrent and must be reformative. Punishment should be applied immediately after a negative behaviour. Other forms of punishment are:

1. Satiation: This is a way in which the counsellor allows the student to continue with negative behaviour until they are tired of doing it. For example, a child who likes stealing students’ underwear in the hostel can be helped by encouraging the parents to buy more than enough underwear for the student until it pisses the student off (Alao 2000).
2. Reprimand: This is when a student is rebuked for misbehaviour. Soft, private reprimands are done quietly while a loud public reprimand is when the counsellor or the teacher speaks to the offenders loudly in the presence of others.
3. Social Isolation: This is often used to decrease undesirable behaviour. The counselor might decide to set the student aside for the meantime as a result of a particular misbehaviour. The counselor must be careful when using this method so that other negative behaviours are not strengthened (O’Leary, Kalfman, Kass & Diabman 1970).
4. Constructive confrontation: this is a way in which the counselor confronts the client about a particular negative behaviour (Bolu-Steve & Adeboye 2016).

Life skill training involves self-management procedures programmes that can be used by the counselors in managing deviant behaviour. These include:

1. Assertive training: Non-assertive students that are trained to be assertive may not get involved in deviant behaviours. Assertive training can also be called resistance training (Asonibare 2016).
2. Decision-making strategies: It is important for in-school adolescents to develop appropriate decision-making strategies. This will help them choose the right alternatives.
3. Peer group cluster involvement: This can be in the form of organising peer group counselling in the school. The clubs and societies within the school can engage peer cluster to modifying norm and attitudes (Adegoke 2003). Goode (2007) has noted that the psychological and social experiences of the child during this transitional period call for the attention of the counselor.

The Dying Civilization

The Dying Civilization

              The Religious Fanaticism brought the greatest destruction to the world. The dominant people failed to understand the teaching of their scriptures and misguided the entire clan. The Orthodox Tradition brought destruction to the Humanity in the form of loss of life and resources along with the destruction of some World Heritage sites which were closely related to Indian culture including the most ancient centre of learning – Ancient Nalanda University and world’s Largest and Tallest sculpture at Bahamian Buddhist statue.

                Before the advent of religion, people were busy in the struggle for life. People, throughout the world, developed in different aspects of life. Even, they developed the process of worship Nature, without the conscience of religion. They worshiped Nature in the form of Sun, Earth, Sky, Fire, water, Trees, Planets and other imaginary celestial figures. They created Myths and Mythology. But their sole intention was the complete development of the individual. Gradually, they developed qualities like – Ambition, Greed, Jealousy, and the habit of Conquering others. When, they could not find the animal to compete with, they started fighting with their fellow man. The power and ambition to dominate others developed the art of war and battle.

              They developed administrative ability and skill to lead the community. They became the king and ruler of the kingdom. Their ambition involved other fellow man to join them in their war and battle for the sake of country and people so that they could be able to survive on the earth. Thus civilization formed and took shape. The people became civilized. They developed language, culture, art literature and philosophy.

            They gradually developed human qualities like – living together, helping each other in the time of need and danger. They developed we feeling, love, compassion, kindness. Honesty and truthfulness were their natural quality. They started developing and flourishing day by day, year after year, centuries after centuries. So many cultures and civilizations were born throughout the different parts of the world. Some of the ancient civilizations may be mentioned here as – Indus valley Civilization or ancient Indian Civilization, Civilization of Mesopotamia or Egyptian Civilization, Iranian Civilization or Dazla-Farat valley Civilization and Hwang-Ho river valley civilization or Chinese civilization etc. So many culture were born in different parts of the world.  

             None of the civilization created greatest threat to mankind but one. That one started capturing the world through their orthodox tradition and violence. Their philosophy may engulf the human community one day but violence will remain be there. They are winning but humanity is defeated. That is the greatest loss of the world. There are people dying for food. The poor are exploited by the so called elite class. Technology is developing and it is affecting the food sector also. The farmers of the country now a days applying the science in the form of oxy-toxin. They are using chemical fertilizer and pesticide which are creating fatal diseases and instead of giving life they taking life of the people and earning handsome money. Such stories are endless. The people who are involved in such activities, are educated class. And that is the greatest pang of life. You can say it paradox or even, irony of life, but ultimately, such education is the enemy of humanity. Most of the people are involved in earning money by any mean - taking the path of corruption and criminal activity.

         Human trafficking is another great issue of this modern world and the gift of modern technology and advanced scientific development. People of all age are kidnapped for organ transplantation. This transplantation business is running by so called physicians and surgeons who have the precision to perform intricate surgery and such skills are the result of scientific and technological development. We have studied that big fish usually eats small fishes, but today, rich people are eating the poor people. Who can call such activity as the symbol of human development? Who are really concerned about such events? Who are acting to prevent such mishap?

            The only cause of such destruction to humanity is the greed of people – to earn more and more money – to lead a luxurious life. It can be said the root cause of all crime is the desire to enjoy physical pleasure of all kinds – sensual pleasure. It’s a matter of great shame on the part humanity that a Man eating another Man. This is the indication of the dying civilization.

Concept of Evaluation

Assessment for learning is the part of effective planning of teaching and learning. Thus, the understanding on what, why, and how on assessment seem really urgent for teachers. It is related to the differences between measurement, assessment, evaluation, and testing, cause of assessment, comparing assessment versus evaluation and grading, key concepts in assessment, types and approaches to assessment, assessment on language competence, principles for good assessment, and testing. It is expected to guide the assessment training and professional development of teachers and administrators to run more productive assessment in English Language Teaching (ELT).

Burhan (2009) states, “Evaluation seems to have the broadest coverage”. Citing Ten Brink (1974), he defines evaluation as the process of obtaining information and using it to form judgements which in turn are used in decision making. The process is made up of five stages:

1)      Preparing,

2)      Collecting the data,

3)      Making judgments,

4)      Making decision, and

5)      Reporting.

Burhan (2009) states, that assessment does not include decision making and reporting. It focuses mainly on data gathering and placing a value on something. Assessment seems to cover stages of preparing, collecting date and making judgement in the evaluation process.

The term testing, is the narrowest in scope. It is one of the techniques for collecting the data or scores. It can be used with other techniques such as observation and interviews. It does not deal with making judgements. One connotative meaning of assessment is that it is used or done both in formal situation and in informal ways. As complementary efforts, informal assessment is encouraged to be done to get additional data in addition to the data obtained from formal testing.

Kizlik (2010) elucidates some differences on measurement, assessment, and evaluation. He states that measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical object are determined. Assessment is, therefore, quite different from measurement, and has uses that suggest very different purposes. Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective or goal.

Assessment is a broad term that includes testing. A test is a special form of assessment. Tests are assessments made under contrived circumstances especially so that they may be administered. All tests are assessments, but all assessments are not tests. We test at the end of a lesson or unit. Whether implicit or explicit, assessment is most usefully connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is designed. A test or assessment yields information relative to an objective or goal. In that sense, we test or assess to determine whether or not an objective or goal has been obtained.

Assessment of skill attainment is rather straightforward. Either the skill exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills are readily demonstrable. Assessment of understanding is much more difficult and complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We can assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is always a leap, an inference that we make about what a person does in relation to what it signifies about what he knows.

Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms. Inherent idea of evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, we engage in some process that is designed to provide information that help us make a judgement about a given situation.

Generally, any evaluation process requires information about the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella term that takes into account such ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on. When we evaluate, we say that the process yields information regarding the worthiness, appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something for which a reliable measurement or assessment has been made.

The concept of evaluation was introduced by Benjamin S. Bloom. Evaluation is broader term in which test and examinations rest. It is not only concerned with the assessment of students’ achievement but with the whole process of education. Evaluation has been defined by different educationists in their own way:

“Evaluation is a new technical term introduced to design a more comprehensive concept of measurement.” – J. W. Wrightstone

“Evaluation is a process of ascertaining or judging the value or amount of something by careful appraisal.” – Good

“Evaluation is a continuous process. It forms an integral part of the total system of education and is intimately related to educational objectives.” – N. C. R. E. T.

 Thus evaluation is a continuous process, of education in relation to the achievement certain pre-determined objectives. It goes on constantly during lesson and units and is closely related to the teachers’ goal and point of views of English teaching. It focuses on the finding out how far students have learned as consequences of teaching. 

Assessment of Language Skills

Assessment of English language is generally determined by assessing the development and progress in different language skills of the learners: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing. 

Assessing Listening Proficiency

Post-listening activities can be used to check comprehension, evaluate listening skills and use of listening strategies, and extend the knowledge gained to other contexts. A post-listening activity may relate to a pre-listening activity, such as predicting; may expand on the topic or the language of the listening text, or may transfer what has been learned to reading, speaking, or writing activities.

In order to provide authentic assessment of students' listening proficiency, a post-listening activity must reflect the real-life uses to which students might put information they have gained through listening.

• It must have a purpose other than assessment
• It must require students to demonstrate their level of listening comprehension by completing some task.

To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the type of response that listening to a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroom situation. For example, after listening to a weather report one might decide what to wear the next day; after listening to a set of instructions, one might   repeat them to someone else; after watching and listening to a play or video, one might discuss the story line with friends.

Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriate post-listening tasks. You can then develop a checklist or rubric that will allow you to evaluate each student's comprehension of specific parts of the aural text.

For example, for listening practice you have students listen to a weather report. Their purpose for listening is to be able to advise a friend what to wear the next day. As a post-listening activity, you ask students to select appropriate items of clothing from a collection you have assembled, or write a note telling the friend what to wear, or provide oral advice to another student (who has not heard the weather report). To evaluate listening comprehension, you use a checklist containing specific features of the forecast, marking those that are reflected in the student's clothing recommendations.

Speaking Proficiency Assessment

Listening and speaking are reciprocal skills. Therefore, evaluation process of both the skills should go side by side. So far we have discussed the process of assessment of listening skill along with that limited assessment of speaking can be done.

Several speaking proficiency assessments have been developed by different agencies and institutions to fulfil different purposes of speaking. But speaking proficiency can be evaluated through following activities:

1.      Simple classroom interaction in English

2.      Formal and informal conversation between teacher and students, students and students in the presence of teacher as an evaluator

3.      By organising debate competition

4.      Elocution

5.      Speech competition

6.      Recitation competition

7.      Loud reading sessions

8.      Oral structure practices

9.      Spelling-pronunciation test

10.  By asking question around a subject or context